Abstract
The independent variables gender, grade level, and having
previously been forced to have sex were examined to determine their association
with promiscuous behavior. The data for
this paper was taken from the 2009 Youth Risk Behavior Survey, a component of
the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System, an epidemiologic surveillance
system which was established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. This survey’s purpose is the monitoring of
the prevalence of youth risk behaviors, with a focus on the establishment of
risky behaviors during youth. This
nationally representative sample contained N = 16,410 persons who were, at the
time, high school students, grades 9 through 12. Analysis showed that gender was significantly
related to promiscuity; males were more likely to engage in promiscuous
behavior than females (x2 = 123.471, p = .000). Grade level was also significant, with
juniors and seniors being more likely to have had sexual relations with two or
more partners (x2 = 747.338, p = .000) than those who were freshman
or sophomore level. Finally, those who
had a history of having been forced to have sex were more likely to exhibit
promiscuous behavior than those who had not been forced to have sex (x2
= 898.07, p = .000). The results shown
from this analysis were as expected.
Implications for future research are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Childhood is the time when we develop our view of the world. We learn to experience the world in our own
unique way. Most of us relate childhood
to a special time of innocence and exploration.
However, childhood is not always a positive experience; there are many
children who are neglected and abused during this crucial developmental time of
their lives. Of those who are abused,
many are sexually violated. While
children can be very resilient and may seem to recover naturally from the
trauma associated with abuse, it would be erroneous to consider the abuse to be
a neutral experience. Sexual activity
during this crucial time in life is developmentally inappropriate, particularly
on the social and psychological level. For
instance, the way the child views relationships and trust will be altered as a
result of abuse. This paper will delve
into the risk factors and prevalence of child sexual abuse, and discuss some of
its long-term effects, particularly consensual promiscuity among adolescents
who have been forced to have sex in the past.
It is necessary to understand the effects of child sexual abuse in order
to implement effective mental health treatments for those who have been
violated.
Child sexual abuse, as defined by the American Psychological
Association, is “any interaction between a child and an adult (or another
child) in which the child is used for the sexual stimulation of the perpetrator
or an observer” (American
Psychological Association [APA], 2012, p. 1). The Centers for Disease Control has a more narrow
definition for their study: “an adult or person at least 5 years older ever
touched or fondled you in a sexual way, or had you touch their body in a sexual
way, or attempted oral, anal, or vaginal intercourse with you or actually had
oral, anal, or vaginal intercourse with you” (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC], 2010). Dr. Dan B.
Allender, in his book, The Wounded Heart,
defines sexual abuse as “…any contact or interaction (visual, verbal, or
psychological) between a child/adolescent and an adult when the
child/adolescent is being used for the sexual stimulation of the perpetrator or
any other person” (Allender,
1995, p. 48). Even the experts
cannot seem to agree on the specific definition of child sexual abuse. However, most who have experienced this type
of violation do know whether it was or was not abuse.
REVIEW
OF LITERATURE
PREVALENCE
The question of the prevalence of child sexual abuse can be quite
complicated. Many children do not report abuse, even when questioned. The stigmatization and shame associated with
child sexual abuse, as well as a failure to recall these traumatic events, can
hinder reporting. Even when abuse is
reported, it is not documented adequately, as there is no comprehensive
documentation process in the United States.
The three best sources from which data might be obtained have some
deficiencies in providing adequate information regarding the prevalence of
child sexual abuse:
·
The FBI
Uniform Crime Reports program does not separate crimes against children
from those committed against adults
·
The
National Criminal Victimization Survey (NCVS) does not request information
about crimes committed against those less than 12 years old
·
The
National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) only addresses crimes
committed against children by their parents or caregivers
While sexual abuse can range from infancy
to age 18 years old, the average age is 9 years old (Myers, 2011). The Center for Disease Control’s study, as
previously stated, does not account for any child sexual abuse unless the
offender is at least 5 years older than the victim. According to the CDC’s study, conducted
between 1995 and 1997, 24.7% women and 16.0% men reported having been sexually
abused (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention [CDC], 2010).
The National Women’s Study (NWS), using telephone interviews, found in
their survey that only 12% of the adult women who endorsed having been raped as
a child ever reported it to the authorities.
PROFILE OF ABUSE
The
most likely victim of sexual abuse is female, possibly with a psychological or
cognitive vulnerability which puts them at increased risk of abuse. Children with disabilities have increased
reporting of abuse, but it is not known if this is due to their particular
vulnerability or a reporting phenomenon.
The families of a sexually abused child are thought to be less cohesive,
with more dysfunction and disorganization than the families of non-abused
children. The sexual offender is more
likely to be a family member (more than 1/3 of all cases) or acquaintance, with
strangers only comprising 5-15% of the cases.
It is estimated that about half of the cases of abuse result in multiple
episodes (Myers, 2011).
EFFECTS OF ABUSE
A child who has been sexually abused will most likely experience
many lasting consequences during her/his lifetime, which may include substance
abuse, depression, poor self-esteem, difficulty with trusting others, anxiety,
and difficulties with sexual adjustment (Conley & Garza, 2011). The three main contributing groups of factors
for the risk of persistent harm include:
(1) Pre-abuse risk factors
such as history of prior trauma and history of psychological problems—in
particular, those with anxiety conditions are more predisposed to developing
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). When
compared to children who have experienced other types of abuse, children who
have been sexually violated exhibit much higher rates of PTSD symptoms, with
about 1/3 meeting the diagnostic criteria. Other pre-abuse risk factors include family
problems, such as domestic violence exposure, parental psychopathology, parental
illness, or those whose families experience impaired capacities.
(2) The nature of the abuse
itself has a significant impact on the outcome for the child who is
violated. Abuse that is more serious,
violent, injury-causing, or perceived as a very highly dangerous situation
carries the potential of causing more long-lasting harm, thus creating a more
negative outcome.
(3) The response to the
child’s disclosure, particularly by the parent(s), can strongly affect
whether the outcome is more or less harmful for the child. When the child finally does disclose, and is
not believed, the entire experience can have a much worse impact on the child. This is more likely to happen in cases such
as when the offender is a parent, other family member, or boyfriend of the
mother (Myers, 2011).
A study conducted by the National Foundation for Family Research
and Education found those who were child sexual abuse victims ranked high in
post-traumatic stress disorder, suicide, and promiscuity (Paolucci, Genuis, & Violato,
2001). Although only 1/3 exhibit
sexual behavior problems, this is a higher rate than those who have been physically
abused or neglected. After having been
exposed to adult sexuality, unusual or developmentally inappropriate sexual
behavior problems such as poor boundaries, sexual preoccupation, excessive
masturbation, and/or sexual involvement with peers may result (Myers, 2011). Those who report child sexual abuse also
report an earlier age of consensual sexual activity, a larger number of
partners, and increased risky sexual behavior (unprotected sex) (Senn, Carey, & Vanable, 2006). Consequently, those who have been abused are
more likely to test positive for HIV by middle adulthood (Wilson & Widom, 2008). It is further believed that risky sexual
behavior may serve as the pathway for revictimization (Myers, 2011).
Sexual abuse influences how people come to see themselves as
sexual beings later in life. Some
attribute their sexual orientation, their intimate relationships, and their
feelings of ambivalence, shame, and low self-esteem to the child sexual abuse
experiences (Roller, Martsolf,
Draucker, & Ross, 2009). Sexual
difficulties, found to result at least partially from the stigmatization
associated with abuse, are also correlated with the internalizing of symptoms,
as was dating aggression. This leads
researchers to believe that early intervention could help lessen the
development of sexual difficulties later in life (Feiring, Simon, & Cleland,
2009). Women who were child sexual
abuse survivors thought of themselves as less romantic and passionate, with
negative sexual affect during arousal.
This negative sexual self-schema was independent of subjects’ overall
personality type, as well as their levels of depression and anxiety, indicating
the consequences of sexual abuse may differ from other types of abuse (Meston, Rellini, & Heiman,
2006). Research on the physiological
aspects of child sexual abuse found disruptions in both short and long-term
stress responses to sexual stimuli that perpetuates into adulthood, manifesting
as sexual aversion, hypo- or hyperactive desire, difficulty establishing
satisfying sexual relationships, negative attitudes toward sexuality and
intimacy, sexual pain, and inhibited sexual arousal or orgasm (Meston & Lorenz, 2012).
Sexual victimization has an impact on self-esteem that other types
of abuse do not have (Turner,
Finkelhor, & Ormrod, 2010). Using
the Beck Self-Concept Inventory, one study found that those who experienced child
sexual abuse were more likely to report below average levels on measures of
competency and self-esteem, with 90 of the 100 subjects having below average
self-concepts (Runyon, Steer,
& Deblinger, 2009).
MALE SEXUAL ABUSE
Men who have been sexually abused may react in ways which differ
from women. Men were found to display greater
promiscuity if they had been sexually abused as children (Conley & Garza, 2011). Men who have been victimized tend to react
with more anger and hostility, since anger is an emotion less likely to be seen
as feminine. Male victims have their
masculinity called into question and thus will also encounter confusion
regarding their sexual orientation (Aosved, Long, & Voller, 2011). Other problems noted in men who have been
sexually abused are: impulsive-irresponsible lifestyle, anti-social behavior, internalized
homophobia, mistrustfulness of adult men, repression, denial, and other sexual
difficulties (Graham, Kimonis,
Wasserman, & Kline, 2011). Men
of color who have sex with men report higher incidence of child sexual abuse,
higher incidence of risky sexual behaviors, and greater prevalence of HIV than
white men. Furthermore, men of color
report sexual identity confusion, anxiety, depression, and social adjustment
problems (Fields, Malebranche,
& Feist-Price, 2008). Men who
have experienced sexual abuse as children are more likely than non-victims to
be victimized as adults as well.
Increased adult adjustment difficulties such as hostility, depression,
post-traumatic stress, and general distress are thought to be primary
contributing factors (Aosved, Long,
& Voller, 2011).
TREATMENT
Child
sexual abuse is a prevalent public health problem which has adverse effects on
children’s social, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional development. Sexual abuse also poses an increased risk of
developing mental health disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder,
conduct problems, substance abuse problems, and major depression. Although many abuse victims do recover
spontaneously, mental health treatment is of the utmost importance in
preventing the development of greater problems due to having been abused.
The
clinician working with the child sexual abuse victim should be well-prepared to
address the sexual behavior problems which may surface. Including the non-offending parent in
behavioral management strategies, such as monitoring the child for appropriate interaction
with other children, is imperative.
Since
children who have experienced sexual abuse are more prone to revictimization
throughout childhood and into adulthood, personal safety skills should also be
incorporated into their treatment plan.
Behavioral rehearsal and body safety skills appear to be effective in
preventing revictimization of the child who has been abused, as well as
reducing the risk of victimization for non-abused children (Myers, 2011).
Summary of literature review
The prevalence of child sexual abuse is very difficult to
determine, as many incidences of abuse go unreported. Since children are often abused by a parent,
authority figure, or person of trust, they often feel they are betraying the
offender if they report the event to another person. There are many serious, long-lasting effects
of child sexual abuse. The individual
who has survived such a traumatic event may appear to have recovered, but the
psychological, relational, and social effects may last their entire lifetime. Studies have shown problems with sexuality,
trust, self-esteem, depression, anxiety, greater incidence of risky sexual
behaviors, sexual identity confusion, and substance abuse. Because many of these issues affect various
aspects of an individual’s future, it is important to understand the health
risks and impact of child sexual abuse so we can implement effective educational
and mental health treatment for them.
Therefore, a study which attempts to define variables identifying those
who might be most at risk for psychological, relational, and social problems is
relevant on this particular issue.
MODEL
OF STUDY
This study utilizes three
independent variables and a single dependent variable. The independent variables are gender, class
standing, and forced sex. The dependent
variable is promiscuity. The conceptual
model is presented below:
Gender
Class Standing Promiscuity
Forced sex
HYPOTHESES
H1: There is a
significant relationship between having been forced to have sex and promiscuous
behavior.
H2: There is a
significant relationship between gender and promiscuous behavior.
H3: There is a significant relationship between grade
level and promiscuous behavior.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Sampling Participants
The Youth Risk Behavior Survey is a component of the Youth
Risk Behavior Surveillance System, an epidemiologic surveillance system that
was established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to monitor
the prevalence of youth behaviors that most influence health. The YRBSS is a continuing annual research
effort which started in 1990. The data
used for the present study is the 2009 survey data consisting of N = 16,410
students. In order to gather the sample,
a three-stage cluster sample design was used to produce a nationally
representative sample of students in grades 9 through 12. An over-sampling of
some minority groups was carried out in order to enable varied types of
statistical analysis. The overall
response rate was above 67%. Students
completed self-administered questionnaires during their regular class
periods. Local parental permission
procedures were followed before survey administration.
Instrumentation/Variables
The dependent variable was “promiscuity”, an ordinal
variable. Respondents were asked the
question, “How many sexual partners have you had?” This variable had responses of 1 = Never had
sex, 2 = Had sex with 1 partner, 3 = Had sex with 2 partners, 4 = Had sex with
3 partners, 5 = Had sex with 4 partners, 6 = Had sex with 5 partners, 7 = Had
sex with 6 or more partners. For this
analysis, the variable was recoded into three categories: Never had sex, Had
sex with 1 partner, Had sex with 2 or more partners.
Independent Variables
The
independent variables in this study are gender, class standing, and forced sex. Gender is a nominal variable, with 1 = female
and 2 = male. Class standing is an
ordinal variable with 1 = freshman, 2 = sophomore, 3 = junior, 4 = senior. For forced sex, a nominal variable,
respondents were asked, “Have you ever been forced to have sex?” This variable had responses of 1 = Yes, 2 =
No.
Procedure
In
order to determine whether there is a significant relationship between the
dependent variable and each independent variable, this study uses the Chi
Square statistic obtained in SPSS with crosstabulations. This type of analysis is used to compute
measures of association for two variables at the nominal or ordinal
levels. The Chi Square statistic is
suitable because the dependent variable “promiscuity” is at the nominal level,
and the independent variables “gender”, “class standing”, and “forced sex” are
at either the nominal or ordinal level as well.
RESULTS
Firstly, results from a univariate
analysis are given in order to describe the sample along lines of selected
demographic variables. Next, the
analysis of the hypotheses is presented in the section titled multivariate
analysis.
Uni-Variate Analysis
Table 1
Uni-variate Analysis of
Demographic Variable “Gender”
|
Categories
of Variable
|
N
|
% of
Sample
|
|
Female
|
8280
|
50.7
|
|
Male
|
8065
|
49.3
|
|
Total
|
16345
|
100.0
|
Note: Missing cases =
65
In Table 1 above, the analysis of the variable “gender” shows a
total of 16345 participants in the study.
Of that number, there are 8280 (50.7%) females, which is only a small
percentage higher than the 8065 (49.3%) male participants.
Table 2
Uni-variate Analysis of
Demographic Variable “Grade”
|
Categories of Variable
|
N
|
% of Sample
|
|
Freshman
|
4153
|
25.4
|
|
Sophomore
|
3926
|
24.1
|
|
Junior
|
4092
|
25.1
|
|
Senior
|
4137
|
25.3
|
|
Ungraded/Other
|
16
|
.1
|
|
Total
|
16324
|
100.0
|
Note: Missing cases = 86
Table 2 above shows the class standing for respondents in the
study. The respondents were nearly equal
in distribution among the classes, with sophomores having slightly less participants
than the other classes, with 3926 (24.1%).
They were followed by 4092 (25.1%) juniors, then 4137 (25.3%)
seniors. The freshman class had the most
participants, with 4153 (25.4%).
Table 3
Uni-variate Analysis of
Demographic Variable “Race”
|
Categories of Variable
|
N
|
% of Sample
|
|
American
Indian/Alaska Native
|
139
|
.9
|
|
Asian
|
751
|
4.7
|
|
Black/African American
|
2832
|
17.6
|
|
Native Hawaiian/Other Place
|
180
|
1.1
|
|
White
|
6889
|
42.9
|
|
Hispanic/Latino
|
3037
|
18.9
|
|
Multiple-Hispanic
|
1722
|
10.7
|
|
Multiple-Non-Hispanic
|
559
|
3.5
|
|
Total
|
16109
|
100.0
|
Note: Missing cases = 301
Table 3
above shows the breakdown of the respondents by racial group. There were 6889 (42.9%) white participants,
significantly more than all the other racial groups. They were followed by the Hispanic/Latinos
with 3037 (18.9%), then Black/African Americans with 2832 (17.6%). The remainder of the participants combined
comprised only 20.6% of the total number; including Multiple-Hispanics with
1722 (10.7%), Asians with 751 (4.7%), Multiple-Non-Hispanics with 559 (3.5%),
Native Hawaiians/Other with 180 (1.1%), and American Indian/Alaskan Natives
with 139 (0.9%).
Multivariate Analysis of
Hypotheses
This analysis shows an approach which examines each
hypothesis separately using the Chi Square statistic with crosstabulation.
Analysis of Hypotheses
H1: There is a significant relationship
between having been forced to have sex and promiscuous behavior.
The analysis of hypothesis # 1 was carried out with the use
of crosstabulation. Table 4 shows the
results of this procedure.
Table 4
Crosstabulation showing the relationship between
forced sex and promiscuous behavior
|
|
Forced
to have sex
|
Not
forced to have sex
|
Total
|
|
Never
had sex
|
133
(11.5)
|
7297
(53.0)
|
7430
(49.8)
|
|
Sex
with one partner
|
215
(18.6)
|
2392
(17.4)
|
2607
(17.5)
|
|
Sex
with 2+ partners
|
807
(69.9)
|
4072
(29.6)
|
4879
(32.7)
|
|
Total
|
1155
(100.0%)
|
13761
(100.0%)
|
14916
(100.0%)
|
Note: Chi-square = 898.07, p =
.000
Table 4 above shows there is
a significant relationship between those who have been forced to have sex and
promiscuous behavior (chi-square = 898.07, p = .000). For the purpose of this study, promiscuity is
defined as having had two or more sexual partners. The cells of the table show that, of those
who reported having been forced to have sex, 69.9% have engaged in sexual
relations with two or more partners; whereas only 11.5% have never had sexual
relations with a partner. Conversely, of
those who have not been forced to have sex, 29.6% have had sexual relations
with two or more partners, while 53.0% have never had sexual relations with a
partner. This shows a larger percentage
of those who have been forced to have sex will also engage in sexual relations
with a greater number of partners, while a larger percentage of those who have
never been forced to have sex will abstain from sexual relations. Therefore, an individual who has been forced
to have sex will be most likely to engage in promiscuous sexual relations with
partners.
H2: There is a significant relationship between
gender and promiscuous behavior.
Table 5 shows the results of a crosstabulation utilized to
study hypothesis # 2.
Table 5
Crosstabulation showing the
relationship between gender and promiscuous behavior
|
|
Female
|
Male
|
Total
|
|
Never
had sex
|
4031
(52.5)
|
3421
(47.1)
|
7452
(49.9)
|
|
Sex
with one partner
|
1450
(18.9)
|
1152
(15.9)
|
2602
(17.4)
|
|
Sex
with 2+ partners
|
2191
(28.6)
|
2688
(37.0)
|
4879
(32.7)
|
|
Total
|
7672
(100.0%)
|
7261
(100.0%)
|
14933
(100.0%)
|
Note: Chi-square = 123.471, p =
.000
Table 5 above shows there is
a significant relationship between gender and promiscuous behavior (chi-square
= 123.471, p = .000). The cells of the
table show that, of those who reported having had sexual relations with two or
more partners, males comprised 37.0% of the total, whereas females made up
28.6%. This shows that a larger
percentage of males have had sexual relations with two or more partners. Therefore, males are more likely to engage in
promiscuous behavior.
H3: There is a significant relationship between grade
level and promiscuous behavior.
Table 6 shows the results of a crosstabulation for hypothesis
# 3.
Table 6
Crosstabulation showing the
relationship between grade level and promiscuous behavior
|
|
Freshman/Sophomore
|
Junior/Senior
|
Total
|
|
Never
had sex
|
4498
(61.0)
|
2942
(39.0)
|
7440
(49.9)
|
|
Sex
with one partner
|
1102
(15.0)
|
1500
(19.9)
|
2602
(17.5)
|
|
Sex
with 2+ partners
|
1769
(24.0)
|
3098
(41.1)
|
4867
(32.6)
|
|
Total
|
7369
(100.0%)
|
7540
(100.0%)
|
14909
(100.0%)
|
Note: Chi-square = 747.338, p =
.000
Table 6
above shows that there is a significant relationship between grade level and
promiscuous behavior (chi-square = 747.338, p = .000). The cells of the table show that, of those in
freshman/sophomore classes, 24.0% have had sexual relations with two or more
partners; whereas, of those who are in junior/senior classes, 41.1% have had
sexual relations with two or more partners.
This shows that a larger
percentage of those in the higher grades have had sexual relations with two or
more partners. Therefore, those in the
junior/senior classes are more likely to have had sexual relations with two or
more partners.
DISCUSSION
In this
study about promiscuous behavior, gender, grade level, and having been forced
to have sex were all significantly associated with whether respondents had
engaged in sexual relations with two or more partners, thereby establishing the
definition of promiscuous behavior for the purposes of this study. Males were found to be more likely to engage
in promiscuous behavior. This is likely
due to the greater societal acceptance of males having multiple partners. In the United States, a male dominated
society, women are more likely to be stigmatized and ostracized for having
multiple sexual partners. However, males
in the society are encouraged, particularly by other males, to have multiple
sexual partners.
It was also
found that those in higher class standing were more likely to have multiple
sexual partners. This finding was not
surprising, since the younger class groups were not of the maturity level to
have begun having sex at all. Higher
classes would have more experience with dating relationships, would be more
likely to have the freedom to drive wherever they wanted to go, and therefore,
have more opportunities to engage in sexual acts.
Of those who
had been forced to have sex in the past, a much greater percentage had multiple
sexual partners than those who had not been forced. The respondents who had not been forced to
have sex in the past were more likely to abstain from sex altogether. Of those not forced who did engage in sexual
relations, a much smaller percentage of them did so with multiple partners than
the group who had been forced to have sex.
There are many theories as to why those who have been sexually violated
might exhibit promiscuous behavior, such as the continual attempt to regain
control or “right the wrong” that was inflicted upon them. Some who have been sexually violated may also
have emotional detachment from the sexual act or avoid letting another
individual become emotionally close to them.
Another theory is that the person who has been forced to have sex may
feel that her sexual acts are the only thing that the opposite sex sees of
value in her, therefore in order to continue an intimate relationship, she must
have sex with her dating partners. Victims
are also more easily coerced into sex.
CONCLUSION
This study was limited in that, of those who reported being forced
to have sex, subjects were not studied in further detail for promiscuous
behavior by gender. Since victimization
calls into question a man’s masculinity, there is more shame and stigmatization
associated with victimization and therefore, male sexual abuse is presumed to
be significantly more underreported than sexual abuse against females. Underreporting leads to large gaps in
research about male sexual abuse and revictimization. More research is definitely needed in the
area of male sexual abuse in order to fully understand the short and long-term
effects of male victimization. The data
is also limited in that the respondent is neither asked how many times he/she
has been victimized, nor her/his relationship to the offender, which is
important to know in determining the individual’s future risks. Multiple episodes of abuse, as well as
victimization by someone very close to the child can cause greater long-term
damage.
The fact that those who reported having been forced to have sex in
the past are more likely to engage in consensual sex with multiple partners
raises concerns about the health risks teenagers are assuming. Additionally, with 32.7% of all respondents
reporting consensual sex with two or more partners, regardless of having been
forced to have sex in the past, it is possible that some intervention/education
programs should be implemented or improved upon, especially for those who are
in the higher risk categories.
Parents of children who have been sexually abused should do what
they can to help improve the future outcomes for their child. One such way is the enhancement of the
child’s self-esteem, through praise of positive behavior. Such enhancement to the child’s self-esteem
may reduce the feelings of ambivalence, shame, anger, anxiety, depression, and
post-traumatic stress. Parents should
also seek early intervention for the child who has been abused to reduce the
long-term damage done. But if at all
possible, the best thing is for parents to educate their children and
communicate with them about the people they spend time with.
References
