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Saturday, April 28, 2012

Sex Offender Registration: Is it Effective?





Sex offender registration began with the passage of the Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act (1994), which required each state to create their own specific program by which those who have been convicted of crimes against children or sexually violent offenses will be registered.  Megan’s Law (1996), an amendment to the Jacob Wetterling Act, additionally required community notification of known offenders. Those states which do not comply with either the Jacob Wetterling Act or Megan’s Law are penalized with a reduction of the amount of federal crime control grant money they receive (Human Rights Watch [HRW], 2007, p. 36).  The sex offender registration laws have continued to evolve over time, with the continued passage of other acts and laws, including the Pam Lyncher Sexual Offender Tracking and Identification Act (1996), the Jacob Wetterling Improvements Act (1997), the Campus Sex Crimes Prevention Act (2000), and the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act (2006) (Stevens, 2012).  The purpose of sex offender laws is, presumably, the safety of children and the community.  Law enforcement agencies lead the general public to believe that, if sexual offenders are required to register, they will be less likely to offend another person in the future.  In addition, the general public appears to have a higher perception of safety in knowing who the registered sexual offenders are in their communities.  Unfortunately, harm reduction and reduced recidivism may actually not be the end result of sexual offender registration programs. 

My first premise addresses what I believe to be the misconception of safety.  When citizens check the sex offender registry online (http://www.nsopw.gov/Core/Portal.aspx), they only see those offenders who have been convicted. This serves to reinforce a false sense of security since those who might have accepted a plea to another charge and/or those members of society who could potentially commit a sexual crime, but have not yet done so, are not on the registry.  I can personally attest to this fact, since none of the incidences of my own childhood sexual abuse was ever reported, leaving my abusers, who were family members, free to commit other offenses.  Contrary to popular belief, it is estimated that up to 90% of those who abduct or sexually violate children are either a family member or acquaintance (Ashmore, 2009).  Even if there is truth to the belief that one should fear such strangers, the ever-increasing number of registrants is continually becoming difficult for law enforcement officials to track.  Particularly due to residency restrictions, many are forced into homelessness or simply adopt a transient lifestyle to avoid registration (HRW, 2007, p. 9).  Therefore, it is my opinion that basing one’s perception of safety solely on sex offender registries commits the fallacy of wishful thinking, as these highly publicized non-comprehensive registries encourage the general public to fear strangers more than those who might actually pose a threat to them or their families.

My second premise challenges the idea that sex offender registration laws reduce the recidivism rate for those violators who have fulfilled the punitive obligations from their previous offense(s).  Patty Wetterling, a child safety advocate and mother of Jacob Wetterling (for whom the 1994 Act is named), is quoted as saying, “I based my support of broad-based community notification laws on my assumption that sex offenders have the highest recidivism rates of any criminal.  But the high recidivism rates I assumed to be true do not exist.  It has made me rethink the value of broad-based community notification laws, which operate on the assumption that most sex offenders are high-risk dangers to the community they are released into” (HRW, 2007, p. 4).  Lawmakers would like for the general public to believe that most sex crimes are committed by those who have previously been convicted of sexual offenses, while rarely ever being asked to provide the sources of their information.  In reality, it is estimated that first-time offenders account for 87% of those arrested for sex crimes (HRW, 2007, p. 25).  Furthermore, there are many different offenses, represented by varying recidivism rates, which fall under the umbrella of “sex offender”, including acts such as public urination, consensual sex between teenagers, mooning, streaking, rapists, child molesters, and those child molesters who specifically molest boys.  The latter group of offenders, the men who molest boys, carry a much higher recidivism rate (1 out of every 3) for sexual offenses than any of the other categories (HRW, 2007, p. 27), thus increasing the recidivism rate overall.  Some recent studies have shown that recidivism of sex offenders can be reduced by approximately 41% with contemporary cognitive-behavioral therapy (HRW, 2007, p. 34).  In my opinion, crime control funding would achieve greater results if it was spent on rehabilitation rather than on futile attempts to keep track of the numerous registrants, many of which do not even pose a threat to society.

The third premise addressed in this paper is the effect of stigmatization.  Goffman’s labeling theory states that once an individual has had a deviant label assigned to him, he will begin to view himself as such and continue to perform deviant actions.  Those who receive an extremely stigmatizing label find it is easier to act in accordance with the label than to act in a way which attempts to prove they have been reformed (Thio, 2010).  According to Edwin Lemert (1951), the first deviant act is the primary deviation, the continued action is the secondary deviation, and the acceptance of the label, leading to a lifestyle of deviance, is tertiary deviance.  Those who bear negative labels will suffer the effects of stigmatization, including ridicule, assault, humiliation, harassment, imprisonment, dehumanization, and inability to find adequate housing and/or employment. Having stated this, with the sex offender registration and notification laws currently in place, I think it is fair to question where the incentive is for the offender to change.  One of the major factors in reducing recidivism is societal reintegration, which is made nearly impossible by the stigmatization of those placed on sex offender registries.  

While it is true that law enforcement agencies should be alerted to those who may potentially commit violent sexual acts, we should be careful to avoid committing the fallacy of the continuum in assuming that all who are required to register as sex offenders are dangerous individuals.  In recent years, politicians are using the appeal to common opinion (bandwagon) in pushing for increasingly stricter, more stigmatizing laws, as well as employing the appeal to fear, leading the general public to believe that all who have committed what is classified as a sexual offense are dangerous individuals and should be labeled as such.  

In conclusion, the sex offender registration and notification requirements are, in my opinion, counterproductive.  The restrictions and stigmatization imposed on those who are required to register strongly discourage societal reintegration, a major factor in reducing recidivism.  Furthermore, the current sex offender registration laws create a false sense of security in leading the general public to believe that only those individuals on the registry are a threat to them.  In reality, most sex offenses are committed by those well-known to the victim rather than complete strangers.  Education and communication is the best defense the general public has against possible sexual or violent crimes.  Parents should educate their children as much as possible, while primarily relying on communication with their children to identify whether any sexual violations might be taking place.  Unfortunately, the profile of the families of children who might be sexually abused is thought to be less cohesive, with more dysfunction and disorganization than the families of non-abused children (Myers, 2011).  There are no simple answers, but I truly feel the sex offender registration laws will achieve results which are directly in opposition to the goals of harm reduction, community safety, and reduced recidivism.



References

Wednesday, April 25, 2012

Suicide Bombing:The Verstehen Approach


Suicide Bombing: The Verstehen Approach

The Palestinian refugees are the world’s longest suffering population.  They have lived for decades in very cramped, impoverished, and often unsanitary conditions.  The Palestinian Islamic Jihad, which receives significant funding from Iran as well as sanctuary from Syria, feel that the jihadist ideology of armed conflict against what they consider to be corrupt governments is the best way to solve the Palestinian problem.  This paper will examine Emile Durkheim’s definitions of the various types of suicide, how a believer of Islam finds justification in the commission of a suicidal act, and use the verstehen approach to discuss the conditions which may encourage someone to be recruited as a suicide bomber.

Rather than focusing on the individual, Emile Durkheim looked to the environment for variations in the incidence of suicide.  Durkheim’s writing, Suicide, explained suicide as a societal phenomenon, dependent upon social integration and social regulation; too much or too little of either would make the individual likely to commit suicide.  The absence of societal integration brings about egoistic suicide; whereas too much of it results in altruistic suicide.  Societal regulation that is lacking will bring about anomic suicide; too much of it results in fatalistic suicide.  The extreme social integration of the suicide bomber, both with his culture and his religion, typically causes his suicide to be thought of as altruistic.  I would further argue that suicide bombers, particularly those recruited from the West Bank, might also fall into the fatalistic category, which is characterized by those who have no real hope in their future due to oppressive situations (Hanson, 2010).

The Islamic religion, while condemning the commission of suicide due solely to frustration, endorses what is referred to as the “martyrdom operation” when performed for the purpose of killing non-muslims.  The family of a suicide bomber takes great pride in the sacrifice of their son or daughter, as their acts are seen as one of the highest acts of Islamic spirituality. The Qur’an promises great rewards, such as sex with seventy-two virgins, for those who are willing to die for the sake of Islam, as well as hellfire damnation for those who are not willing to rid the world of all infidels.  There are several verses in the Qur’an which instruct the believer to be willing to kill and willing to die for Allah (Glazov, 2009). One very important Qur’an verse the Shahid (or martyrs) use to justify the killing of innocent bystanders, even believers of Islam: Qur’an (17:33)"And do not kill the soul which Allah has forbidden, except by right" ("Religion," 2011).  Basically, the defeat of infidels and the establishment of Islam as the only religion is the ultimate goal, no matter what the cost. There are four different ways a Muslim may fulfill his jihad obligations: (1) faith in his heart, (2) preaching & proselytizing with his tongue, (3) by good deeds with his hands, and (4) confronting enemies or unbelievers with the sword.   

Muslims believe their true life begins when their earthly life ends, and that martyrdom is a supreme honor.  Once their missions are completed, their families are now paid $25,000—an amount that would take many years to earn otherwise (Esterbrook, 2009).  Upon death, they are immortalized, celebrated, and have achieved the highest goal of a Muslim (Philps, 2001).  Suicide bombers fit Durkheim’s definition of altruistic suicide, as those who are willing to sacrifice themselves are excessively high in social integration.  Palestinians live in a collectivist culture, which denounces the individualistic culture of America, as well as our support of Israel, whom they view as their enemy.  Those who are chosen for martyrdom must also be heavily indoctrinated in the Muslim faith.  The life of Palestinians is very difficult.  They have lived under great oppression for decades, and the scarcity of employment opportunities leaves them with no hope of rising out of their impoverished conditions and making a good life for themselves.   As the afterlife is so very real to the bombers, they see their martyrdom as a way of moving out of horrible conditions.  In my opinion, this falls under Durkheim’s fatalistic suicide and plays a part in their willingness to be chosen by terrorist groups as an agent.  The young man who feels there is greater reward, status, and honor for both himself and his family upon his death has nothing to fear in dying.  

In conclusion, a suicide bomber falls into Durkheim’s definitions of both altruistic and fatalistic suicide.  These young men (and some women) are so highly socially integrated into their collectivist culture, as well as their religion, that they will stop at nothing for the recognition and advancement of both.  Their oppressive living conditions also rank them high in social regulation, as they are constrained to remain in their conditions.  The Muslim religion condemns suicide, but endorses martyrdom, giving the young person with no other real hope for a future the ability to bring glory, honor, and higher status to his family—something he probably would not have been able to do otherwise. 



References

Treating Juveniles in a Sex Offender Program


Treating Juveniles in a Sex Offender Program
Using Adventure-Based Programming:
A Matched Group Design

               Typically the sexual rearrest rate for male juvenile sex offenders (JSO’s) ranges from 8-14% and the nonsexual rearrest rate ranges from 35-54%. This study compares rearrest rates for juvenile sex offenders who have participated in an adventure programming design with those who have participated in two other programs during the same time period in the same state (Georgia).
               The LEGACY program is a full-time residential program for offenders aged 12-16 years old. The group/cohort is 12 to 20 other males. The six program goals are: (1) use workbooks and classroom discussion to identify sexually inappropriate thoughts and behaviors and eliminate them; (2) encourage sexually appropriate behavior utilizing consequences for behavior; (3) promote responsibility for their behavior; (4) encourage relationships with both same-sex as well as opposite-sex to be equal rather than based on power and control; (5) guide the development self-control with the use of adventure-based activities; (6) encourage the development of healthy sexual roles and social skills. Typically the program day involves usual things such as household responsibilities, good hygiene, group therapy, academics, and goals discussions. However the LEGACY program’s core element is adventure experiences, which are centered on the aforementioned six goals. The LEGACY program utilizes eustress, or the positive use of stress, in unfamiliar environments and situations. It is a small group design that is solution oriented, with clear consequences for inappropriate actions set forth.
               For this study, LEGACY participants were matched one to one with another male offender from an other specialized program (OSP) and a male incarcerated in a state-run facility, or a youth development center (YDC). Matching was based on age at time of first offense, most serious arresting offense, and race. The matched design consisted of 62 white males and 33 black males (95 altogether) in each group. The two outcome variables were (1) rearrest after release from placement for any criminal behavior within 1, 2, and 3-year periods; and (2) number of days from being released to being rearrested.
               The study results showed that LEGACY participants had a significantly lower rearrest rate overall when compared to the other two programs, with a statistically significant difference in the number of days between release and rearrest. However, there was no significant difference between programs in the area of violent sex arrests. Overall, the 3-year rearrest rates for all serious offenses, including violent sex arrests, were: 32.6% for OSP, 34.8% for YDC, and 19% for LEGACY. The researchers point out that perhaps all three programs are similarly effective in treating JSO’s with LEGACY standing out in more effectively treating other offenses. Although the exact figures are not given, the researchers state there is a low rearrest rate for JSO’s compared with adult sex offenders.  It is concluded in this study that more research needs to be done in how LEGACY contributes to prosocial orientation and self-regulation, as well as addressing with greater scrutiny the small number of JSO’s who reoffend with sex offenses.
               This study is beneficial for professionals working in the child maltreatment field from the perspective of both the offenders as well as their victims. Many times a sex offender targets someone whom they would not consider to be a challenge or a threat, thus the likelihood of the victim being a younger or smaller child. Effectively rehabilitating juvenile sex offenders increases the safety of those they come in contact with. Also, in these cases, the offender is still a child himself and how his case is handled can affect him for the rest of his life. Placement in the most effective treatment program is of utmost importance at such a young and impressionable age. Effective rehabilitation at this age can prevent the juvenile sex offender from growing into an adult sex offender.


Bibliography
Gillis, H. L., & Gass, M. A. (2010). Treating Juveniles in a Sex Offender Program Using Adventure-Based Prgramming: A Matched Group Design. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse , 20-34.

Firearms in Homes



Firearms in Homes

The founding fathers of the United States deemed the right to bear arms important enough to include it as the Second Amendment of the Constitution in the Bill of Rights, stating, “A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed” (National Archives and Records Administration). Alabama’s Constitution allows for its citizens to have the right to bear arms for personal defense or that of the State. A license is not required to bear a firearm in one’s own residence or fixed place of business (NRA-Institute for Legislative Action, 2010). Whether to keep firearms in the home is a controversial topic that is the source of many heated debates and research studies. This paper will present the arguments from both sides of the debate, along with the research and/or literature employed which justifies each position.

The Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence website (Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence, 2011) cites many studies and statistics regarding deaths which are attributed to firearms present in the home, including homicides, suicides, and unintentional shootings. Jim Brady was Ronald Reagan’s press secretary who was shot by John Hinckley, Jr. on March 30, 1981 during a Presidential assignation attempt. This shooting, which left Jim Brady partially and permanently paralyzed, caused his wife, Sarah to become active in the gun control movement. The Brady Act, which requires background checks on any person attempting to purchase a firearm, was first introduced in the United States Congress on February 4, 1987, with Bill Clinton signing it into law on November 30, 1993. One of the large contributors of statistical information which is utilized by the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence is Dr. Arthur Kellerman. Kellerman’s 1998 article, “Injuries and Deaths Due to Firearms in the Home” (Kellerman, 1998), is based on his study comparing the number of times a firearm in the home was used to injure or kill in self-defense versus the times the weapon’s presence in the home resulted in suicide attempt, criminal assault, unintentional injury, or homicide. Kellerman conducted his study (twelve months in Memphis, TN; eighteen months in Seattle, WA and Galveston, TX), reviewing police, medical examiner, emergency medical service, emergency department, and hospital records to examine the reason for the shootings, both fatal and nonfatal. Kellerman determined from the records reviewed that the unjustifiable shootings (unintentional shootings, criminal assaults, homicides, and attempted or completed suicides) far outweighed the justifiable (self-defense) ones in the following ratios: unintentional shootings 4:1; criminal assaults and homicides 7:1; attempted or completed suicides 11:1. This made his overall conclusion that firearms in the home were twenty-two times more likely to be used for unjustifiable reasons than for self-defense.

In another article, “Risks and Benefits of a Gun in the Home”, David Hemenway, PhD, compiles other articles of scientific literature regarding the risks and benefits of firearms in the home (Hemenway, 2011). Hemenway first identifies the major risks of gun ownership as accidents, suicides, assaults and homicides, and intimidation. Using data from the National Violent Death Reporting System, the author cites many statistics comparing United States accidental shootings with other countries, reviewing both fatal and nonfatal injuries, as well as self-inflicted versus other inflicted accidental shootings. Hemenway states that firearms in the home are one of the most significant preventable accidental injury hazards, with the United States being higher than other countries, and self-inflicted shootings outweighing those inflicted by others. He also states that suicide, which is quite often an impulsive act due to a temporary circumstance, is more likely to be lethal when a gun is used than all other methods combined. Hemenway found in his research that suicide rates were higher for homes with firearms, particularly if the firearms were unlocked and loaded; this higher risk factor applied to all household members, not just the gun owner. When firearm ownership rates have been lower, so has the suicide rate, although the rate of those with suicidal ideation did not change. From the information gathered, Hemenway concludes that it is the availability of a very lethal method of suicide that makes a significant difference in the suicide rates. Similarly, the presence of a firearm caused homicides occur at a higher rate, possibly due to an impulsive act, which can be caused by a domestic quarrel and heightened by the use of alcohol. Intimidation was another risk the author details regarding firearms in the home, stating that guns are often used as part of intimate partner violence for the purpose of scaring, threatening, or harming women who, in turn, will most likely not use a gun in self-defense. The possible benefits that Hemenway explores in this article are crime deterrence and thwarting of an already-in-progress crime. He explains that most people keep firearms in the home for protection, particularly against stranger violence however, most burglaries do not occur when someone is home and, if violence does occur, it is not likely to be a stranger who is the culprit, but rather it is more likely to be an acquaintance or family member. In terms of firearm presence deterring crime, Hemenway cites studies that reveal quite the contrary; homes with guns are actually burglarized at a higher rate, and more likely to be burglarized when someone is home. The author explains that this may be due to burglars being attracted to the value of the stolen firearms. As for thwarting crimes, Hemenway cites that the National Research Council finds the available data is unreliable, mostly because of the ambiguity of the term “self-defense”. Overall, the National Crime Victimization Survey’s data found that calling the police was better at thwarting crime than threatening with a gun. The author’s summation is that there are no credible studies which suggest the benefits outweigh the risks of having firearms in the home.

One of the most-publicized groups who lobby for gun owners to continue having “the right to bear arms” is the National Rifle Association, better known simply as the NRA. The NRA website has an article which directly refutes the above-cited Kellerman study (National Rifle Association of America, 2001). The author of the article says that Kellerman’s work is propaganda that had a political agenda from the beginning. In the article, the NRA asserts that Kellerman’s study was done on a small scale in areas non-representative of the country. The author further critiques Kellerman’s work by pointing out the defensive use of guns was understated, as the only measure of crime deterrence in his study was criminals being injured or killed; the NRA argues that lives saved is the true measure of the protective benefits of firearms. The NRA’s final argument in this post regarding Kellerman’s research is that the research data and therefore, his statistical percentages, are derived from sloppy work, since with a very small percentage of the homicides/assaults involved guns being kept in the victim’s homes.

Finally, in the web article titled,” In Defense of Self Defense”, author Jeff Worley discusses the research behind the political decisions regarding Americans’ right to bear arms (Worley, 2009). The case of D.C v. Heller used much of the research by Florida State University criminology professor Gary Kleck, although he was not directly involved in the case. The case, initiated by a security guard named Dick Heller, resulted in the Supreme Court overturning the District of Columbia’s handgun ban in a 5-4 decision. Kleck applauded the law being overturned, since residents of the District of Columbia are now able to protect themselves; also, contrary to what was expected, during the time of the handgun ban, homicide rates in the District of Columbia rose significantly, with guns being used in most of the shootings. Kleck’s research over the years has found that victims of criminal attacks who are armed with guns are less likely to sustain serious injuries than if they utilize any other strategy, including non-resistance. Worley adds that Kleck is not your typical pro gun ownership advocate: he is Democrat, is a member of the ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union), Amnesty International USA, and is not a member of the NRA—nor has he ever received any research funding from them or any organization of the sort. His findings on this issue are totally research-based. Kleck has found through his research that victims use guns more often for self-protection than do offenders for the purpose of committing a crime; also criminals are less likely to attack someone they believe to be carrying a gun, or breaking into a residence when someone might be home (for fear of being shot). Carrying a gun can enable the law-abiding citizen to protect his body and property, most times without ever shooting the weapon, harming the offender, or causing injury to himself. Laws aimed at gun control are only applicable to handguns, not long guns, which are more accurate and lethal than handguns. The advantage of carrying a handgun is that it is easily concealed however, a long gun, once purchased, can be sawed off or otherwise modified to make it just as concealable. Kleck’s opinion is that we should not have stringent policies regarding handguns when the unrestricted substitute is more deadly. He states that valid, unbiased research should be what determines gun control policies. Kleck’s concern is that we avoid ineffective, potentially deadly gun laws and continue to enable the average law-abiding citizen to protect his person, family, and property.






Works Cited
Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence. (2011). Guns in the Home. Retrieved 11 23, 2011, from Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence: http://www.bradycampaign.org/facts/gunviolence/gunsinthehome
Hemenway, D. (2011). Risks and Benefits of a Gun in the Home. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine , 10.
Kellerman, A. L. (1998). Inuries and Deaths Due to Firearms in the Home. Journal of Trauma, Injury, Infection, and Critical Care , 263-267.
National Archives and Records Administration. (n.d.). Bill of Rights. Retrieved 11 23, 2011, from The Charters of Freedom: http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html
National Rifle Association of America. (2001, 12 11). 22 Times Less Safe? Retrieved 11 23, 2011, from NRA-ILA: www.nraila.org/Issues/FactSheets/Read.aspx?ID=119
NRA-Institute for Legislative Action. (2010, 02). Firearms Laws for Alabama. Retrieved 11 23, 2011, from NRA-ILA: http://www.nraila.org/statelawpdfs/ALSL.pdf
Worley, J. (2009, Winter). In Defense of Self Defense. Retrieved 11 23, 2011, from Florida State University Research in Review: http://www.rinr.fsu.edu/issues/2009winter/cover01_a.asp



Exploring the Overlap



Exploring the Overlap in Male Juvenile
 Sexual Offending and General Delinquency:
Trauma, Alcohol Use, and Masculine Beliefs

Using the examination of childhood trauma, alcohol use, and masculine beliefs as risk factors, the authors of this study sought to predict which juvenile sexual offenders (JSOs) might be at risk of committing nonsexual violence (Brown & Burton, 2010). The author refers to a study by Burton and Meezan (2004), which finds that JSOs are a few times more likely to recidivate with nonsexual type offenses than sexual offenses (Burton & Meezan, 2004). Typical literature, in attempting to isolate sexual offender risk factors, compares the two groups as though they are dichotomous, without considering there may be overlap among the two groups. The authors question whether all JSOs should be treated the same, or should their overall level of delinquency be taken into account? By examining the overlapping risk factors among general delinquents and sexually offending youth, a better distinction could be established between more or less delinquent JSOs, and thereby assist in directing their treatment and/or punishment. Currently, the United States treatment and punishment for JSOs is equal and similar to that of adult sexual offenders.

The authors, who surveyed 332 incarcerated youth across six Midwestern residential facilities, utilized the Self-Report Delinquency Scale (Elliot, Huizinga, and Ageton, 1985) to find that 56.9% of youth completing the survey endorsed the commission of nonsexual violence in the year prior to their incarceration.  Next, they sought answers as to whether childhood trauma, alcohol use, and masculine beliefs can differentiate between the youth who will only commit sexual offenses  and those who commit both sexual and nonsexual acts of violence. The SRD alcohol abuse scale, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), and the Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI) were all administered to the participants then, using logistic regression, the scores were then regressed onto the membership of either nonsexually and sexually violent youth or exclusively sexually violent youth.  

The authors found that childhood trauma, alcohol use, and masculine beliefs in sexually offending youth can all serve to predict subsequent nonsexual violence. A serendipitous finding in this research was that, contrary to expectation, there was no notable variance in severity of sexual abuse between the two groups, meaning that those who also commit nonsexual acts of violence are no more severe in their sexual offenses than those who exclusively commit sexually violent acts. Alcohol use stood out in its ability to predict nonsexual violence, with the exclusively sexually violent consuming considerably less alcohol than the group who was also nonsexually violent. The author stresses that further study should be done on this correlation to determine causation, as it cannot be determined from this current study. The study of childhood trauma only verified what has already been established by many other researchers—greater childhood trauma can play a part in the commission of delinquent acts as well as sexual offenses. Although the MRNI identified higher scores in masculine beliefs and attitudes, the researchers question its reliability in predicting adolescent males’ general delinquency and sexual offending, as it was designed for adults and is not a clear measure of masculinity in adolescents. 

It has previously been established that sexually violent youth are more likely to recidivate with nonsexually violent acts. Since this study found alcohol use to be positively correlated with commission of these acts, the researchers suggest that substance abuse treatment should be integrated into sexual offender programs. 

This study could be important in evaluating how we currently classify and punish juvenile sex offenders. It brings us to question whether we should account for their overall delinquency before grouping them together or classifying them as we do adult sexual offenders. Perhaps if we approached their treatment differently, we might have a greater chance of reducing their substance abuse potential, their tendency to commit violent acts in general, and overall recidivism rate.


References

Child Advocacy in Cambodia





 Literature Review
Cambodia is a country which has been subjected to a great deal of turmoil over the course of many centuries. As a result, the country remains very poverty-stricken. People sell themselves or their children to human traffickers in the hopes of a better life. Traffickers take advantage of these people, oftentimes obtaining their cooperation by deception, physical abuse, drugging, or by paying large sums of money to their families. Despite laws in place against trafficking, the law enforcement officials and administrators, who are also severely underpaid, willingly welcome bribes in exchange for “turning a blind eye”. There is a large gap between the finances and resources available to the inhabitants of this country, dependent upon whether they reside in the urban areas or the more rural locations. This difference can be seen in quality of education, availability of teachers, housing, utilities, toileting facilities, healthcare availability, number of children in families, whether a child is born at home or in a healthcare facility, and the infant mortality rate. Despite the willingness of the government to ratify the U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child, and their demand that Cambodian courts uphold this document, children are still in danger due to the inability to enact or enforce its articles. Many non-governmental agencies, particularly charitable organizations such as UNICEF, assist as much as they possibly can to improve the overall conditions of Cambodia, but the immediate needs of this country greatly exceed the resources these organizations can currently provide. This paper will provide the reader with a greater understanding as to how Cambodia came to be in such a horrific condition, as well as why it struggles to get back to being a completely self-sufficient region.  

Over the course of many centuries, the once-prosperous Khmer empire began to decline, primarily due to other countries’ expansions and hopes of apportioning their land. The Cambodians formed an alliance with the French, who offered a French Protectorate, but did nothing in terms of developing the country during their occupation. Eventually, due to the French involvement in other wars (WWII and Vietnam), Cambodia once again became an independent state. However, Cambodia’s prior occupations left them with poor economic conditions, along with having serious ethnic divisions. The Khmer Rouge government took control of Cambodia from 1975 to 1979 and, in seeking to transform the country into a peasant-dominated society, cut off the country from nearly all outside contact. During this time, many of the skilled and educated people were part of the more than 1.5 million who lost their lives. By the time the Vietnamese overthrew the Khmer Rouge government, followed by intermittent civil war lasting another 10 years, Cambodia had suffered much devastation in its infrastructure, society, and economy. The 1991 Paris Peace Accord recognized the establishment of the State of Cambodia. Subsequent changes in leadership have taken place with the current power being shared between the Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) and the Funcinpec party ("History," 2006).

        Cambodian children face numerous daily challenges, even from the beginning of their lives. The Children’s Rights Advocacy Office, a division of Licadho (Cambodian League for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights), includes the following as threats to children’s safety: low access to education, low literacy rates, high infant mortality rates, poor healthcare availability, and sexual abuse and trafficking. Children are sent to work in unsafe, potentially deadly environments due to the poverty status of their families ("Licadho,”). 

The U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), was adopted by the United Nations in 1989, and has been ratified by most countries, who vow to uphold the principles of the protection of children’s rights. According to the United Nations Human Rights website ("CRC," 2012), the Cambodian government ratified both of the protocols in the CRC in 1992. In addition to having submitted two reports to the Committee on the Rights of the Child, which monitors the CRC implementation, the Cambodian Constitutional Council (2007) has also decreed that the CRC applies in Cambodian courts. 

The childhood mortality rates, which remain highest in the rural areas, are steadily decreasing. The current infant mortality rate is 45 deaths per 1,000 live births from 2005-2010. The 2005 CDHS report figure was 66 deaths per 1,000 live births.  The mortality rate for the under-five age group has decreased in the five years prior to the survey; in 2005 the rate was 83 deaths per 1,000 live births, whereas the 2010 rate is 54 deaths per 1,000 live births. 45 percent of births occur at home (mostly rural) while just over 54 percent occur in a health facility. The number of facility births is a notable increase from 10 percent in 2000 and 22 percent in 2005. Cambodian children are much more likely to receive recommended vaccinations than in the past; 79 percent had received all vaccinations in 2010, an increase from 40 percent in 2000 and 67 percent in 2005.  Maternal education, economic condition, and urban versus rural living all have a significant impact on the maternal health care, childhood mortality rates, and childhood vaccination coverage (DGH, 2010)

Household conditions vary greatly in Cambodia, dependent on place of residence; urban areas are much more likely to be developed, having greater access to electricity, running water, toilet facilities, education, and health care than the more rural or remote locations. According to the Cambodian 2010 Demographic and Health Survey (Directorate General for Health [DGH], 2010), the average household consists of 4.7 people, with 35 percent of those being under the age of 15. The fertility rate of 3.0 children reflects a one child decrease in the last ten years, but again this varies based on location. Urban women have 2.2 children versus rural women having 3.3. Women who have higher education or economic status have fewer children beginning at a later age, and marry later than their counterparts (DGH, 2010)

During the Khmer Rouge regime’s reign during the 1970’s, Cambodia’s education system was destroyed. Currently, the country’s basic literacy rates are estimated to be about 70 percent, which is a great improvement in the last decade; the estimate of functional literacy in 1999 was about 37 percent. Males have a higher literacy rate than do females; those in urban areas are more literate than people who reside in rural locations. Those who work in the education system, from teachers to administrators, express their concerns over the disparities between populations and literacy rates. They also state their concerns over the slowed rate of progress in literacy however, the government is now paying more attention to literacy, which is resulting in preparing new books for publication (Sakada, 2011). One of the major problems Cambodia faces in improving education is poor pay for teachers, who make the equivalent of USD 30 per month (Cambodia’s Education Sector Working Group [CESWG], 2006). There is also a large student-teacher proportion, especially in the rural areas, which provides for a lower quality of education.  The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS) is attempting to attract teacher trainees from the more rural areas in hopes that they would be more willing to remain in these areas for work after being trained. The World Bank, which has poverty reduction as its stated mission, funds projects aimed at increasing education and literacy in Cambodia ("Quality," 2007). The Cambodian Education Sector Support Project, funded by World Bank, has easier education accessibility and improved quality of education as its goals. Other non-governmental agencies, such as UNICEF and other charitable organizations contribute funding, manpower, and supplies to help improve the educational system.

Primarily due to the poverty still rampant in Cambodia as part of the aftermath of the Khmer Rouge regime, human trafficking (both for labor and sex) is a major problem. Also factored into the equation are: lack of unemployment, poor education, and increased tourism (Academy for Educational Development [AED], 2006). Human trafficking is defined as “the recruitment, transport, harbouring of people, by means of coercion, threats, or deception, for the purpose of exploitation, including labor exploitation” (United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking  [UNIAP], 2011, p. 11).  Often, children as young as five years old are either bought from their families, or told they will be working in a legitimate occupation, such as a waitress in a café or as a maid. They will have to work for many years to pay back the amount of money that was paid to their families by the pimp or brothel owner. Those who attempt to leave before having paid back their debt are beaten into submission. Cambodia’s minister of women’s affairs, Mu Soc Hua, estimates the number of children involved in sex trade trafficking to be around 30,000 (NBC News, 2005). The government has not made any great strides in the last five years towards putting an end to the sex trade and trafficking. Quite to the contrary, government and law enforcement officials are thought to have accepted bribes in exchange for their facilitation of the trade, making it even more difficult to stop human trafficking (AED, 2006). Several non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) provide shelters which provide safety and societal reintegration for young girls who have fallen victim to traffickers. One such organization, AFESIP Cambodia (http://www.afesip.org/), is headed by a former child sex slave named Somaly Mam. She operates two nonprofit foundations and has rescued more than 4,000 children, mostly aged 12 to 15 years old, but sometimes as young as 3 years old. Somaly’s foundation operates shelters and clinics in Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand, housing up to 500 girls at a time. AFESIP provides rehabilitation and vocational skills training; reintegration into society, accompanied by long-term follow-up; and AFESIP Cambodia Investigation and Legal Teams provide legal support to bring traffickers to justice.

Children's Living Conditions
An individual’s place of residence in Cambodia, along with his education level, has a significant impact on all other major household factors in his day-to-day life.  90 percent of households in urban areas have electricity, whereas only 19 percent of rural households have this basic necessity (DGH, 2010).  94 percent of urban households have access to an improved water source during the rainy season, compared to the 76 percent of their rural-dwelling counterparts.   Those who live in Phnom Penh, as well as other urban areas, have the highest education levels, although males are more likely to receive an education and to be literate than females.  However, a small percentage (3 percent female; 6 percent male) has any post-secondary education.  Women residing in rural areas have, on the average, one more child than urban women.  This figure corresponds with the education comparison in fertility rates, as well as marriage age: those with higher education have one less child on the average, and will marry and begin child-bearing two years later, than their uneducated counterparts.  The overall infant mortality rate of 45 deaths per 1,000 live births is much higher for women with no schooling (72 deaths per 1,000 live births) than those with secondary and higher education (31 deaths per 1,000 live births).  The infant mortality rate difference can especially be seen in area of residence, with 64 deaths per 1,000 live births in rural areas compared to 23 deaths per 1,000 live births in urban households.  The rate of children who have received all of their recommended vaccinations is significantly higher for urban areas (86 percent) versus rural areas (77 percent). However, a greater difference can be seen based on province, with Mondol Kiri/Rattanak only having 28 percent fully vaccinated, while Banteay Mean Chey is vaccinating 93 percent. 

Trafficking
Human trafficking is a big business in Cambodia. Due to the government’s lack of compliance with the minimum standards against trafficking, the country has earned a Tier 2 rating in the United States Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report for 2011, meaning that, while they have attempted to make progress toward combating trafficking, they experienced a decline from the previous year (United States Department of State [USDoS], 2011).  Using the guidelines set by the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), the Royal Cambodian Government (RCG) received this rating for their failure to convict offenders, including public officials.  Although the government is making some attempts to stop trafficking, they are often thwarted in their attempts due to lack of resources and excessive corruption. Some of the law enforcement officials are said to have accepted bribes from traffickers in exchange for “looking the other way” and allowing the trafficking and sex trade to continue.  In other instances, officials have been found to be profiting directly as the brothel owners or traffickers, with very minimal penalties imposed.  Sometimes brothels are shut down, only to re-open shortly thereafter.  There have been a few arrests made, and even considerably fewer convictions, of United States citizens who were in Cambodia for what is called “Child Sex Tourism”.  The United States Department of State has made recommendations regarding the necessary steps the Cambodian government should take, including anti-trafficking legislation and greater strides in bringing public officials who are involved in trafficking to justice.  Non-governmental organizations, such as AFESIP Cambodia, will go into the brothels, seeking out those who are underage and/or wish to be rescued from the life to which they are being subjected (http://www.afesip.org/).  AFESIP Cambodia provides legal assistance to victims, as well as shelter, therapy, reintegration to society, and rehabilitative services.  The Cambodian government only offers temporary shelters for victims, and depends heavily on the non-governmental agencies for any further victim assistance.  Currently, it appears that most of the assistance victims receive is from non-governmental organizations.

Corruption
The legal system in Cambodia is wrought with corruption.  The Cambodian League for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights (Licadho) ("Licadho,”) asserts that the government is writing new laws which restrict the freedoms of association, assembly, and expression.  Licadho further states that the government is persecuting anyone who might be seen as challenging government officials.  Non-governmental agencies (NGOs) who attempt to help the Cambodian people are being made to register with the government before conducting any activities.  The Law on Associations and NGOs, according to Licadho, should be “described as a ban on group activities prior to the successful completion of a complex, opaque registration process”.  The citizens of Cambodia feel their rights to expression are gradually being stripped from them.  The Anti-Corruption Law, enacted in August 2011, actually omits spouses and relatives of government officials from compliance requirements.  Furthermore, it imposes a prison sentence for whistleblowers whose information does not lead to a conviction, or is considered a useless inquiry.  With the level of corruption in existence, this type of law will discourage many people from making any accusations whatsoever, which will further encourage those who participate in under-handed activities to continue doing so.

Education
Education in Cambodia was dealt a drastically severe blow during the reign of the Khmer Rouge.  The Khmer Rouge was right on target in terms of how to overpower a nation.  During their four year occupation, the Khmer Rouge managed to completely destroy the educational system of Cambodia and kill 1.5 million people, most of whom posed a threat to their regime primarily due to being educated or skilled.  This, coupled with another 10 years of intermittent civil war, continues to debilitate Cambodia, leaving the country highly dependent on outside non-governmental organizations.  Many statistical reports point to the major lifestyle differences which have their roots primarily in differences in education.  Number of children, infant mortality rate, accessible healthcare, toileting facilities/electricity available, and whether one is targeted as prey to traffickers are all affected by a Cambodian’s level of education.  The greatest notable chasm exists between those who live in urban areas and their rural counterparts.  However, the already-underpaid teachers cannot afford to travel to the rural areas, nor do they have the time, since they usually supplement their income by working additional jobs.  The World Bank, whose primary mission is poverty reduction, has helped establish programs which will advance the educational opportunities for Cambodian children ("Quality," 2007).  Their programs have paid particular attention to the specific needs of those in rural areas, females, and the handicapped.  World Bank’s main current program in progress in Cambodia is the “Education for All Fast Track Initiative”, whose objective is to speed up the process of right-age entry to school, increase net enrollment, have a higher primary education grade six completion rate, and increased retention and progression rates (The World Bank Group [WB ], 2011).  Another World Bank project currently in progress is the “Higher Education Quality and Capacity Improvement Project” (The World Bank [WB], 2011), whose aims are the improvement of the quality of teaching, research, and management of project-specific areas, as well as trying to increase the retention of disadvantaged students.  In the past, retention in school was only considered based on merit.  The “Education for All” program has a budget of $57.4 million USD; the “Higher Education” program’s budget is $23 million USD.  Continuing to serve the country’s educational needs will be of the utmost importance to the overall future of the Cambodian people, but Cambodia will not have the financial ability to succeed in furthering the education of its people without outside assistance from non-governmental agencies. 

UNCRC
While Cambodia has made much progress in their compliance with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, they still have a long way to go with regard to protection, education, and health care for children.  While those who reside in urban areas are being protected, receiving an education, and have health care that is easily accessible, the many children who live in the more rural areas are not quite so fortunate.  Those who live in the most impoverished areas simply do not have the ability to travel to locales where education and health care are available, nor do those who provide these services have the time or money to reach those who do not have transportation.  The rights that children should have are greatly determined by where their family resides and their income level.  

Conclusion
Cambodia had major setbacks in previous years due to outside enemies, such as during the Khmer Rouge reign.  Great injustices were inflicted upon the people so that the entire country could be violated.  While the country has regained its independence, the lack of education and resources prevents Cambodia from escaping the clutches of poverty.  A child’s chance of survival from the very beginning is highly dependent on its family’s education and income level, as well as place of residence.  The stratification of the society and the class one is born into is almost inescapable.  People are so desperate for a better way of life that they will believe the lies of the traffickers and will sell themselves or their children into slavery.  The grossly underpaid law enforcement officials, who should be enforcing the anti-trafficking laws, will accept bribes, or operate as brothel owners/traffickers themselves, to allow the continued victimization of Cambodia’s most desperate, naïve, and helpless citizens.  The Cambodian government should, as the United States recommends, made greater strides toward prosecuting and convicting corrupt officials, along with imposing more severe penalties for violations.  The anti-corruption laws, by excluding government officials and their family members from compliance, are basically of no use.  Until the Cambodians cease to victimize one another, either directly or indirectly, they will not be able to make any great strides as a nation in rising out of poverty.  By enacting new laws which make it increasingly difficult for non-governmental organizations to operate in Cambodia, there will be a greater decrease in the assistance which has served to help the country rebound thus far from the devastation imposed upon it in the past.  Although Cambodia has regained independence from outside enemies, it appears that the country’s greatest adversaries to advancement currently reside within its own borders.





References

Therapy Pets in the Courtroom & CAC


 Therapy Pets in the Courtroom & CAC




Testifying in court can be a scary thing, particularly for a child who is a victim of abuse.  The child has already been through an ordeal which leaves behind emotional trauma that she/he is not mature enough to understand and process.  The child may have been threatened by an abuser, who may also likely be an authority figure in whom they previously trusted.  Once they have finally managed to tell another person about the traumatic event they have endured, they are then asked to meet with many people they do not know and relive the whole thing again and again, until the day they face their abuser in court.  Properly trained animals, when permitted into the forensic interview and courtroom, can reduce the stress a child endures during initial interviews and testimony, sometimes encouraging the child to complete her/his testimony when she/he might not have otherwise done so.  However, there are defense attorneys who argue that their clients may not receive a fair trial due to the animal’s presence in the courtroom.  This paper will serve to examine the difference between therapy pets and animals that are professionally trained for criminal justice settings, as well as presenting both sides of whether the legal system is an appropriate place for an animal. 

Is there a difference between a therapy pet and a courthouse dog? Courthouse Dogs, LLC defines pet therapy dogs as “personal pets that have undergone training with their owner, and then have been evaluated and registered by a local or national therapy dog organization” (Courthouse Dogs, LLC [CD, LLC], 2010, p. 1).  They make a specific distinction between therapy pets and dogs that are professionally trained for assistance within the criminal justice system.  An improperly trained dog can impede, rather than ease, criminal justice procedures.

The challenges which may arise from the use of a pet therapy dog, rather than a dog that is professionally trained for the criminal justice setting include:
·       Lack of testing for their safety around children
·       Lack of written guidelines which constitute acceptable behavior for the dog
·       Confidential situations where it is unacceptable for a nonprofessional to be present—use of therapy pets requires the volunteer handler to be present, which may not be acceptable in some situations.
·       Conflict in the amount of time the dog is available versus the time the child might need the animal to be present—it is best for the same animal, once acquainted, to go through the entire legal process with the child. Volunteer therapy pets are limited to working only 2 hours per day.
·       Time investment on behalf of facility’s professional staff in implementing and maintaining a program where therapy pets are utilized.

Due to the increasing use that has been noted with courthouse dogs, the issue of establishing some guiding principles has been raised.  As of November 19, 2011, the National District Attorneys Association’s (NDAA) Board of Directors has adopted specific guidelines which they consider to be “best practices” regarding the use of “Courthouse” or “Comfort” dogs.  The NDAA guidelines state (National District Attorneys Association’s Board of Directors [NDAA], 2011):
·       The dog should receive training in and graduate from an Assistance Dogs International (ADI) program (or an equivalent program)
·       Testing should be done to ensure the animal displays safe behavior in the presence of young children
·       Animal handlers should work in a professional aspect of victim advocacy, law enforcement, or criminal justice
·       The dog and its handler should participate in continuing support and education with ADI service dog organization
·       The dog and handler should make a good team in terms of their social interaction within the courthouse
·       There should be a liability insurance policy of no less than $1,000,000 maintained on behalf of the dog 

Courthouse Dogs, LLC states the best practices model plays an important role in convincing judges that the trained canines are useful and can provide a more positive outcome in the courtroom setting, while ensuring minimal risk of civil liability due to their presence ("Best Practices," 2010).  Courthouse Dogs, LLC also declares that training and vetting is of the utmost importance and that a dog’s lack of discipline which may upset the legal system would be detrimental to the establishment of any future courthouse dog programs.  

One of the agencies endorsed by the National District Attorney Association, noted for their excellence in training courthouse dogs, is Assistance Dogs International, Inc (ADI). Their website lists the minimum standards for the certification of their dogs, addressing specifics in the animal’s appearance, behavior, and training.  Dogs begin training as puppies and generally are not placed until around the time they are 2 years old.  Animals trained under ADI standards are clean and well-groomed, will not urinate or defecate anywhere deemed inappropriate (and will do so on command), are not disruptive or aggressive, do not steal food, work calmly and quietly in any situation, and remain within 24” of their handlers unless otherwise necessary to perform trained tasks ("Minimum Standards," 2012).  Facility dogs in particular will have a specific handler/trainer who should be a facility professional (not a volunteer) to whom the animal will positively respond and obey.  The trainer will also receive instruction and be able to demonstrate the ability to care for the dog, maintain current training, and continue to add new skills with the dog.  The animal will wear equipment or clothing which makes them easily identifiable and the animal/handler team will have a laminated identification card with their photo(s) and names ("Facility Dogs," 2012).  

The presence of a therapy dog during a forensic interview may make this important part of the process more productive as it allows the child to feel more comfortable during the interview, which might otherwise be very distressful for the child.  The child can hug or pet the animal during the interview if they become upset, whereas the interviewer cannot provide any affection or physical contact; the child can be allowed a certain amount of control with the animal in a situation where they most likely would otherwise have no control; and the dog can provide a positive distraction from the child’s apprehension.  

In the courtroom, children are more apt to feel comfortable on the witness stand with a courthouse dog by her/his side.  Without a dog present that can provide comfort for a child during testimony, parents will often agree to a plea bargain by the defendant just to prevent their child from enduring the stress of testimony.  Dogs in the courtroom are not limited to serving the child on the witness stand; they also can be a presence in the entire courtroom, as they sometimes are found in drug court, soothing those who may be enduring drug withdrawals or family who must sit patiently waiting for long periods of time.  The following is a sample jury instruction that judges may use (written by the National Crime Victim Law Institute): “Testifying in court is an unfamiliar and stressful event for most people; these dogs are used in a courthouse setting to help reduce witness anxiety and are available to any witness who requests one” (Campos, 2008)The presence of the animal may also serve as a deterrent from displays of aggressive behavior in a very high-strung environment.

However, despite the extensive professionalized training of courthouse dogs, as well as their handlers, there are defense attorneys who strongly oppose their presence in the courtroom, particularly when they accompany a witness to the stand.  These defense attorneys, rather than using the dog as a soothing agent for their own client, argue that the animal being available to the defendant on the stand creates a jury bias.  In a New York case from 2010, the defense argued against allowing the dog in the courtroom, citing the dog’s presence would cause a jury to be more empathetic toward the witness as she would be seen as more vulnerable, thus distracting from any contradictory evidence the defense might put forth ("People v Tohom," 2010).  In that particular case, the dog, Rosie, nuzzled the 15-year-old victim, who had been raped and impregnated by her father, when she hesitated during testimony.  The lawyer for the defense stated the victim stroking Rosie sends the underlying message to the jury that her stress is due to having to tell the truth about the defendant and that the defense is disadvantaged in that it cannot cross-examine the dog.  In another case in Marion County, California, the defense stated that the “heartwarming scene of child and dog” could create prejudice against a defendant.  They also argued that the child was being rewarded for his testimony against the defendant with the new dog to play with, and that could potentially weaken the process of getting to the truth, which should ultimately be the goal of any trial (Berton, 2009).  

Given the potential for appeals based on the presence of an animal in the courtroom, prosecutors are being careful to keep very good records concerning their use.  Any acting out on behalf of the dog could have the potential for a mistrial, thus their very professional behavior is of the utmost importance.  Several states have already implemented the use of dogs in the courtroom, but prosecutors fear that they will one day have to defend their use, as there still remains no law on the books which either definitively allows or disallows their presence (Berton, 2009).  

In looking at the information presented, I can see the questions and concerns on both sides of the debate as to whether an animal should be allowed to accompany a child to the witness stand.  I do not think anyone would argue that there is a particularly heart-warming “cute factor” in seeing a child with a well-mannered dog, as described in the SF Gate article, “Courtroom Canines Calm Kids, Raise Bias Fears”.  I can also understand that a defense attorney will do whatever is in his power to prevent a child from testifying, as allowing a child to feel empowered by such means prevents the attorney from having an “easy win”.  Where both the prosecution and the defense may argue that they only want to “get to the truth”, everyone is well aware that there is much more at stake than simply justice.  All the attorneys have their reputations, egos, and finances at stake as well.  

Prosecutors, while having the child’s best interest at heart, will try to use anything that can be advantageous for them to get a conviction.  Most abusers have done and said things to children to ensure their silence, therefore they never planned on the child telling anyone, let alone possibly being able to testify, thus changing a defendant’s willingness to “cut a deal”.  By getting a judge to allow a comfort animal into the courtroom, a prosecutor can potentially have a much easier case.  I would truly hope that a prosecutor who feels they have a weak case would not use a comfort dog as a tactic to sway a jury!  

Defense attorneys are paid to obtain the easiest road for their client, and having a child feeling confident enough to take the witness stand undermines the defense attorney’s ability to perform this task.  It is completely understandable that the defense would feel disadvantaged with this scenario.  A defendant faced with the possibility of his victim speaking in court about what he did to her will certainly fear being exposed for who he really is!  By that same token, a defendant who is truly innocent would have good cause to worry that a jury might be partial to a child with a comfort dog.  Particularly with sex offender laws becoming increasingly harsh, cases involving such crimes can be especially nasty. In some cases, the accused are being allowed to plea to charges which would not require them to be a registered sex offender, so a defendant who thinks the child will testify against him might seriously consider this option. 

The child, who has already endured trauma that many can only imagine, is caught in the middle.  It is understandable why parents/guardians of these traumatized children would agree to plea bargains! Who would want to subject an innocent, fearful child to even more trauma and tension?  Personally, I cannot imagine having to ask my young child to go sit alone in front of a courtroom filled with people she/he does not already know and talk about things that she/he should not understand.  I am sure even most adults would feel anxious about such a scenario!  However, to have this dog present—a friendly, comforting, non-judgmental, living being that can just “be there” and help reduce that anxiety—can make all the difference in the world.  Everyone involved—the prosecutor, the defense attorney, the parents, and the child—knows that this animal’s presence is going to change lives.  For the most part, all the adults involved in a case where there are crimes against children already understand what is going on.  Abusers are often familiar adults and possibly authority figures to the child, so the child testifying against this adult can be very intimidated and possibly feel as though they are betraying this adult.  Having a comfort dog in the courtroom to ease the child’s anxiety can potentially create a more “level playing field”, so to speak.  The child has someone on the stand with her/him to offer support and sympathy.  If seeking out the truth is truly the goal of the criminal justice system, then giving a young child the tools with which she/he can tell what happened to her/him is very appropriate.  Disallowing a comfort item or pet, thereby potentially hindering her/his testimony, is a disservice to the criminal justice system. 

An organization such as Courthouse Dogs, LLC, while offering a very beneficial service, also has a vested interest in the continued utilization of courthouse animals.  This organization is very active in trying to set standardized guidelines for courthouse dogs, ensuring their assistance is permitted to continue in the judicial system.  Courthouse Dogs, LLC website provides a plethora of education and information regarding everything you would ever need to know about a courthouse dog program, such as picking out your dog, the various settings where the dogs are most helpful, legal information, scientific research on courthouse dog use, training of dogs, and all the current news about courthouse dog use.  

The National District Attorneys Association “best practices” resolution is simple and straightforward, addressing the major safety and confidentiality concerns of having courthouse dogs.  The resolution provides for a more professional mindset regarding the program and seeks to protect all who are a part of it.  The best practices, in my opinion, set basic standards from which a criminal justice system may write their own standards in implementing a new program.  I think that these best practices will evolve over time, as new challenges and obstacles are recognized in courthouse dog programs.  The practice of keeping very good records on the dogs, as stated in the “Courtroom Canines Calm Kids, Raise Bias Fears” article, is an excellent idea.  These records will most likely be valuable in making any necessary changes to already-existing programs, or when establishing guidelines with which to implement new programs involving the presence of animals in the criminal justice system.

In conclusion, I think that the utilization of courthouse dogs is a wonderful program!  The costs involved, such as employing a professional in the field as a handler, are most likely offset by less cases going to trial.  Since it does appear that a good foundation for these programs is already established, I think that this trend will continue to spread.  I do feel that defense attorneys would be wise to find ways to employ their use.  I think comfort dogs should be allowed on the witness stand for adults as well as children, since adults can experience high levels of anxiety in such situations, too.  This measure would also dispel the concerns of defense attorneys who feel that the prosecution has an unfair advantage.  Even if a comfort dog is not necessary for the witness, but rather is being used as a tactic, the animal being present will ease tensions for all involved.  Children who are required to testify in court have a difficult task, since they are primarily concerned with loyalty to their authority figures and trying to please them.  When a child has been abused by a parent or guardian, it can be extremely stressful to discuss traumatic things they have endured.  The child is not skilled in recognizing ploys of defense attorneys who will try to confuse them or twist their words.  In the past, getting children to testify might have been a major roadblock to prosecutors’ cases, but we could possibly see those situations change drastically now that dogs are being allowed to accompany children to the witness stand.  Defense attorneys no longer have the comfort of thinking that the prosecution and parents would not subject a child to such a stressful situation; they now have to make a stronger case for their client.  Rather than argue the animal’s presence, defense attorneys should make use of the animal as well.  When all is said and done, the goal in the judicial system should be a fair trial where the truth is what is exposed.  Courtroom dogs have been shown to benefit everyone in the courthouse by reducing the anxiety level of all involved, so their presence should be allowed.



 


References